How Carbon-14 Is Used To Date Artifacts

In the 1950s W.F. Libby and others (University of Chicago) devised a method of estimating the age of organic material based on the decay rate of carbon-14. Carbon-14 dating can be used on objects ranging from a few hundred years old to 50,000 years old. What Is Carbon-14? Carbon-14 is produced in the atmosphere when neutrons from cosmic radiation react with nitrogen atoms: 147N 10n → 146C 11H Free carbon, including the carbon-14 produced in this reaction, can react to form carbon dioxide, a component of air. Atmospheric carbon dioxide, CO2, has a steady-state concentration of about one atom of carbon-14 per every 1012 atoms of carbon-12. Living plants and animals that eat plants (like people) take in carbon dioxide and have the same 14C/12C ratio as the atmosphere. However, when a plant or animal dies, it stops taking in carbon as food or air. The radioactive decay of the carbon that is already present starts to change the ratio of 14C/12C. By measuring how much the ratio is lowered, it is possible to make an estimate of how much time has passed since the plant or animal lived. The decay of carbon-14 is: 146C → 147N 0-1e (half-life is 5720 years) Example Problem A scrap of paper taken from the Dead Sea Scrolls was found to have a 14C/12C ratio of 0.795 times that found in plants living today. Estimate the age of the scroll. Solution The half-life of carbon-14 is known to be 5720 years.​ Radioactive decay is a first order rate process, which means the reaction proceeds according to the following equation: log10 X0/X kt / 2.30 where X0 is the quantity of radioactive material at time zero, X is the amount remaining after time t, and k is the first order rate constant, which is a characteristic of the isotope undergoing decay. Decay rates are usually expressed in terms of their half-life instead of the first order rate constant, where k 0.693 / t1/2 so for this problem: k 0.693 / 5720 years 1.21 x 10-4/year log X0 / X [(1.21 x 10-4/year] x t] / 2.30 X 0.795 X0, so log X0 / X log 1.000/0.795 log 1.26 0.100 therefore, 0.100 [(1.21 x 10-4/year) x t] / 2.30 t 1900 years

Essay on Summer Place - 1034 Words

MEMORANDUM FROM: Group Members TO: Owners, Summer Place, Inc. DATE: May 26, 2015 RE: Information, Findings and Conclusions on Business and Legal Problems I. Decision Situation, Concern, and Purpose Summer Place wants to expand Diamond Design and Construction, Inc. (Diamond). It is considering a five-year expansion plan in County A located in eastern North Carolina. This expansion would support increased profits and business growth objectives. County A has enacted utility surcharge ordinance to increase economic develop, to recruit professional and skilled workers and to further growth of existing business organizations in the county. The utility surcharge ordinance requires that businesses with 33 or less full†¦show more content†¦The operative elements are STATE, PERSON, and JURISDICTION. The common application is the prohibition of some person from exercising a right, discrimination based on gender or legitimacy, or whether the classification might relate to a legitimate government interest. The facts in the case of Nordlinger v. Hahn are that the plaintiff, who was a renter in Los Angeles County, purchased a home in the same county. The plaintiff’s property taxes are higher than those of her established neighbors due to California Constitution Article XIIIA. The issue is whether the reassessment scheme of Article XIIIA of the California Constitution that imposes a higher tax on new resident and not old ones violates the Equal Protection Clause. The United States Supreme Court held the California Constitution Article XIIIAs acquisitionvalue assessment scheme does not violate the Equal Protection Clause. The law is the Equal Protection Clause and is deemed valid under the rational basis test. 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Implementing School Vouchers Program Free Essays

Most Americans believe that improving our system of education should be a top priority for government at the local, state, and Federal levels. Legislators, school boards, education professionals, parent groups, and community organizations are attempting to implement innovative ideas to rescue children from failing school systems, particularly in inner-city neighborhoods. Many of these groups support the voucher program. We will write a custom essay sample on Implementing School Vouchers Program or any similar topic only for you Order Now The standard program proposed in dozens of states across the country would distribute monetary vouchers (ranging in values between $2,500-$5,000) to parents of school-aged children, usually in troubled inner-city school districts. Parents could then use the vouchers towards the cost of tuition at private schools, including those dedicated to religious indoctrination. School vouchers might seem a relatively great way to increase the options poor parents have for educating their children, when in fact, vouchers pose as a serious threat to values that are vital to the health of American democracy. These programs subvert the constitutional principle of separation of church and state and threaten to undermine our system of public education. Implementation of voucher programs sends a clear message that we are giving up on public education. Even though vouchers would help some students, they will not help all. Public education is for all children, regardless of their religion, academic talents or their ability to pay. This policy has made public schools the backbone of American democracy, helping young people grow into responsible citizens. Supporters of the voucher program, include that the program offers parents a choice. In fact, vouchers only guarantee that some parents will have some taxpayers money to put towards a child†s private school tuition. No voucher system will cover the total cost of tuition, when tuition in a private school averages $10,000 per year, and the voucher totals less than $5,000. This leaves the parents still having to pay thousands of dollars, and most families cannot come up with the rest of the money to cover tuition costs. Voucher systems do not guarantee that every child who applies will be selected to attend the private school. Many religious schools currently reject two of every three children who apply. The only thing that vouchers guarantee is that taxes will go up. Taxpayers will be forced to foot the bill for the vouchers, but they will have to pick up the tab for a whole new bureaucracy, including hidden costs like transportation. Vouchers will also force taxpayers to support two entire education systems, public and private. To make things worse, no extra money will be given to the schools that desperately need taxpayers support. Being one of the most diverse countries in the world, the public school system stands as an institution that unifies Americans. Under the voucher program, our educational system, and our country would become more separated than it already is. With the help of taxpayers† dollars, private schools would be filled with wealthy and middle-class students, and the motivated students from inner cities. Some public schools would be left with fewer dollars to teach and the poorest of the poor and other students who, for one reason or another were not private school material. All these situations would hardly benefit public education. Many studies suggest that vouchers are good for public schools yet, there is little evidence that they will ultimately improve the quality of public education for those who need it most. Proposition 38 would change public education statewide without first experimenting to determine what type of state subsidy would lead to high quality education for most children. California†s public school enrollment exceeds 6 million, and the number of students willing to leave public schools in unknown, but there is an even smaller percentage of the number of spaces existing in private schools for these students willing to leave. (â€Å"Draper Initiative†) Proposition 38 is a huge and costly experiment that hold little accusations of improving student achievement, and does not provide real education choice. In conclusion, school voucher programs undermine two great American traditions, universal public education and the separation of the church and state. Instead of embracing vouchers, communities across the country should dedicate themselves to finding solutions that will be available to every American school aged child. Voucher programs will not allow the parent to make the choice of what school their child attends, but the voucher school will make the choice in which what school students can attend. Voucher schools get the money that taxpayers† are paying for, these children to attend these private schools, but these children are still being rejected for many reasons. The end argument should be whether or not vouchers will lead to full educational freedom, and most likely it will not. How to cite Implementing School Vouchers Program, Papers

Music and Mood free essay sample

Music affects everyone in completely different ways. I always found it fascinating that everyone had their own style of music that they enjoy and over time I have noticed that people’s taste in music tends to go along with their personality and moods. When I discovered an article on music and mood I knew I wanted that to be my topic because I was always interested in it and wanted to learn more. The article I found was titled â€Å"Music and Mood† by Carolyn J Murrock and Anita V Clark. The article explains how rhythm, melody, pitch, harmony, and interval in music play a role in creating alterations in mood in humans. Murrock and Clark state that, â€Å"Music produces psychological effects by engaging the limbic system. † The limbic system is the center of emotions, sensations, and feelings. The article also explains how your emotions affect your nervous system. This can affect your cardiovascular, respiratory, neuroendocrine, and immune systems in your body. We will write a custom essay sample on Music and Mood or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Emotions also release different hormones. Stress hormones can lead to anxiety, depression and disappointment; whereas positive emotions lead to tranquility, complacency, and relaxation. Murrock and Clark believe that the release of these hormones when listening to music produces physiological effects in the human body. The therapeutic properties of music date back to prehistoric times when it was used as a powerful instrument for health, healing, and wellness. Today music is used less in pharmacological ways and more for enjoyment and enhancement of physical activity. People also use music today to alter moods, communicate feelings, and create distraction. There are six levels of wellness: physical, social, emotional, intellectual, environmental and spiritual. Music and Mood† could really be focused on any of these levels of wellness, but I believe it mainly focuses on emotional wellness. In Murrock and Clark’s article they focused on how listening to music releases hormones that are believed to alter someone’s mood and can affect their emotional wellness. Someone in a calm, happy mood could listen to a few songs with stressful beats and begin to feel more anxiety. The opposite can also happen. A stressed out person could listen to some relaxing music and notice that they are calmer. Music can affect your emotional wellness in positive or negative ways. The article also mentions that listening to music can affect your nervous system. When your nervous system is affected it can cause many problems in your body. The problems can affect your cardiovascular, respiratory, neuroendocrine, and immune systems. These all show signs of physical wellness. Listening to music can also be very spiritual too. People can listen to calming songs and beats to relax themselves and release any anxiety or stress they have built up. Some people like the feeling of belonging in a group so they will use certain genres of music and music taste to connect themselves with people. People who listen to the same types of music can give off very similar energies and form social groups. I really learned a lot through reading Carolyn J Murrock and Anita V Clark research. I found it all to be very interesting and I didn’t realize how much of an impact music has on people emotionally, physically, spiritually and socially.